Forward

The history of Heart Mountain Relocation Center from the viewpoint of the Project Director is one of broad scope involving not only the operations and maintenance of the Center but problems relating to human behavior, of both the evacuees and the appointed personnel.

This report will not go into detail concerning either physical or human relations, since both are discussed by division and section heads in their own reports.

An attempt will be made to give an over-all picture of Heart Mountain during the three years and three months of evacuee-occupancy in an effort to improve any similar situation should such a provlem ever arise again in this country. It is believed it would be practically impossible to outline a set procedure for handling another evacuation, such as now has been successfully solved at this level of operations. There are basic policies which might be established and which probably could be adhered to in any mass evacuation of people, but to establish set rules which should be followed in all instances would result only in confusion and inefficiency. Perhaps the policy of WRA, which at times, of necessity, seemed catch-as-catch-can, was the only manner in which such problems could be handled.

The ever-changing program and unanticipated developments could not be mapped in advance and fortunately the elasticity of policy provided a means by which unpredictable situations could be handled. This, of course, was necessary partially because of other agencies with whom WRA cooperated, particularly the Army, and because the program had no precedent.

It is also believed that the problem of handling persons of Japanese ancestry, both Americanized Nisei and purely Japanese Issei, is unique in itself. Perhaps the government is fortunate that the first, and let us hope, only group to suffer evacuation were people of Japanese ancestry. Although the so-called Japanese psychology often made it difficult for the administration to comprehend the working of the Oriental mind, the passive and even timid nature of the people made them, generally speaking, cooperative and amenable.

Although it should be stated there were situations which at the time seemed provoking and hard to solve, over the period of more than three years, there was not a single issue causing serious estrangement between the administration and the evacuees. At various times, events, which will be noted later, caused unrest and somewhat strained relations but in every case where the administration's policy was clear, the responsible and reasonable leaders of the community concurred.

A great deal of credit for the smooth operations of the community must be shared with the evacuees. Without their assistance in many major matters, particularly during the early days of the Center, the project administration would have found the performance of its functions less smooth.

There is no intention, however, of indicating that the evacuees were all amenable and cooperative. In fact, throughout the history of the Center there were certain factions which utterly refused to believe in anything inaugurated by the administration. To these factions, which were in the minority, the administrative staff members were always "inu" or dogs, and evacuees who supported WRA were considered as bad, if not worse. These groups considered WRA as the government, making no distinction between the Army. Department of Justice, Department of Interior or the President himself. WRA and "the government" was a part of a huge faceless monster whose sole purpose in life was to make them unhappy.

It must also be remembered that, although community government was set up on a pseudo-democratic basis, that the administration at Heart Mountain controlled the Center. Consequently many of the most important parts of the program were accomplished through conferences and concessions. Typical of the Japanese was the desire to hold lengthy discussions in considering every matter by the application of their own psychology, the result of which was that the administratioin could go ahead with its plans and still the council as a body and the individual members must not "lose face" with their constituents.

In order to accomplish this state of affairs it invariably was the function of some member to object to proposed WRA precedure and with the granting of some slight concession the council would have performed its duty in the interest of the residents.

In fact, it was learned after the program had proceeded for several months that one method of directing the work of the council was by presenting an issue to its members, allowing them to dabate and oppose it with full fury. Then, sometime when other matters were to be considered the original issue could be reintroduced, and the council, having vented its arguments and often its spleen against the proposal, could accept with grace as a group.

Early Phase Of The Program

One of the greatest periods of unrest experienced by the evacuees was during the first few months of operations. This was due in part to the newness of the Project and the sudden jump in population from approximately 500, (the first group to arrive), to 11,000 in the short period of about a month.

(During this period C. E. Rachford, who was retired from Forest Service, was project director. He continued in such capacity until December 15, 1942, when the present project director assumed control of the Center.)

Since most Heart Mountain evacuees were from Southern California, they experienced difficulties in adjusting to the rigors of the treeless benchland of northern wyoming. The first winter, too, was exceptionally servere with the mercury dropping many times below sere and once to 28 degrees below sero. During one full week the warmest temperature recorded was 11 degrees below sero. The first snow fell on September 16th, before most of the tarpaper barracks had been insulated and the majority of the residents faced the future with serious misgivings.

The first setback in operations occurred within a few weeks of the Center's opening, when the food situation became a matter of major concern, both to the administration and the evacuees. The project steward at that time underestimated the quantity of food necessary for a community of nearly 11,000 persons and serious consequences were indicated. With the reorganization of the mess section, however, and the appointment of new project steward the situation was corrected. This will be discussed more fully under the subject of Problems.

Project employment, too, was an important factor during those first few months. In order to occupy the time of evacuees, every division and section carried a top-heavy number of workers. It was felt that this was necessary at that time to avoid too much leisure for the evacuees during which they could conduct their "latrine lectures" and spread general discontent throughout the Center. Over-employment was beneficial during this period because it not only occupied the time of most evacuees but it provided them with clothing allowances, which were neede with the approaching cold weather. But, as did most things, Project employment was reduced to a reasonable figure in due time.

Since all of the project heating came from coal and since few of the evacuees had ever before used that fuel, the administration ran into a two-fold issue within a short time. The first being the matter of keeping sufficient coal on hand to supply the needs of the community; the second being the wage scale of those who unloaded the ears.

With the arrival of coal on the Vocation siding a mad rush would be made to unload it; and in some cases an inequable distribution resulted. A similar scene would be enacted in the blocks where residents would fill every conceivable container with coal and hide them under beds and in closets. These matters took care of themselves, however, when the evacuees learned that coal would arrive at proper intervals and in sufficient quantity that there was no need for hoarding.

As cold weather descended the job of unloading the cars became less and less desirable and workers demanded top wages of $19 per month. Besides the higher wage scale they also demanded goves and work clethes. Although the higher wage scale for coal handlers, garbage collectors and hog farm workers was followed as a rule, the problem of keeping such workers satisfied was one that existed as long as the Center was in operation. The bottleneck in such situations was usually broken when members of the Community Council and Block Managers volunteered to unload the coal cars.

Despite small issues which were continually before the administration, necessary work was continued and "winterising" of apartments before the weather became too severe, was completed.

During the early days the Center plans were ambitious, with divisions and sections competing in number and variety of undertakings. Most of them proved unreasonable or impractical and were dropped.

There was activity everywhere on the Project, however. Besides working toward providing the creature comforts, evacuees and appointed personnel also worked toward the goal where Heart Mountain would resemble any community in interest and activities.

A brief statement of the varied interests in the developing community during the period leading up to the end of the year, gives a general idea of Heart Mountain, month by month.

AUGUST:

The advanced contingent of evacuees arrived August 12 and was followed by the first regular train six days later. Trains bearing evacuees arrived almost every day and on occasion two trains arrived on the same day. On August 25, the first General Information Bulletin, forerunner of The Heart Mountain Sentinel, was distributed.

SEPTEMBER:

Elementary and high school registration began. Construction of Block Seven to provide additional quarters for evacuees was commenced September 6th. Sugar beet farmers sent an urgent appeal for workers. Having reached its most serious point, an official investigation into the food situation was called. A shortage of pads and blankets necessitated a rush trip to the Casper Airbase for additional aupplies. the last of the evacuees arrived September 17th, bringing the population to 10,867. Nearly 400 men left the Center to work in the beet fields and 1,200 more were requested. Work began on the $100,000 optical plant for grinding lenses and making precision instruments for the armed forces. (This project was later abandoned when sufficient skilled workers were unavailable. The building was later purchased by WRA and became The Sentinel building.) The opening day at the dry goods store found 3,500 eager residents storming the counters for winter clothing. Elementary schools opened in the barracks on September 30th.

OCTOBER:

High school students began their term work. Formal ceremonies opened the first session of the Heart Mountain judicial commission. The last General Information Bulletin was distributed prior to the publication of the printed, eight-page tabloid Heart Mountain Sentinel. Hallowe'en was celebrated with parties, dances and costume affairs.

NOVEMBER:

The first Center census began. Residents went to the polls for the first time to elect representatives. The Welfare Section distributed 2,000 clothing allowance checks. After a period of ill-feeling between members of the police department and R. I. Griffin, Cancasian chief of Internal Security, the group returned to work and Griffin resigned. Heart Mountain Echoes, high school publication, was issued for the first time. A protest signed by 3,000 residents was forwarded to Dillon S. Myer, Director, asking for the removal of the barbed wire fences surrounding the Center. On the approval of the Washington WRA office, 7,500 pounds of turkey and 600 gallons of ice cream were served at the first Center Thankegiving dinner. Work began on the high school building.

DECEMBER:

Heart Mountain joined the nation in coffee rationing. A USO drive was commenced on the anniversary of Pearl Harbor. C. N. Rachford resigned as project director.

Except for occasional periods of tension and reaction to events, Heart Mountain had come through the "shake-down" period satisfactorily and both the residents and appointed personnel were ready to follow a routine pattern of life.

Problems

As had been previously mentioned, the food situation at the Center during the first few weeks of the Project's life sent off repercussions which reverberated for months. While the lack of proper food supplies was the original cause of distress the after-effect which came the following spring with an attack by The Denver Post stunned both the administration and the residents.

As aggravating as the inadequate food supplies were, the situation was soon cleared up and arranged on a basis where the fear of shortages was dismissed from the minds of the evacuees. With the resignation of the first project steward, an emergency set-up was scheduled and through the efforts of the procurement section, food was bought on the open market and regular shipments were received from the Army Quartermaster Corps.

A policy of requisitioning supplies for a six-month period was insugurated and the mess section was able to operate without difficulty until the following spring.

When warehousing space for this ever-increasing quantity of food proved inadequate, it was decided to store some of it in the messhall storerooms. As the rise in monetary value of the supplies drew the attention of the administration, efforts were made to reduce the inventory. Before this could be done through normal channels, an investigation demanded by The Denver Post brought nationwide attention. Information regarding the quantity of food at Heart Mountain was given to The Denver Post by an assistant project steward who had previously been asked to resign.

An investigation by WRA officials from Washington revealed that although the inventory was too large, no waste existed, and all food-stuffs were properly accounted for. With this revelation the Post's attacks were discontinued and Heart Mountain never again was subjected to ridicule by the Denver newspaper. (See Reports Division report.)

Afterwards the greatest concern of the mess section was the huge amount of waste accumulating daily at the messhalls. It was soon discovered that the peculiar food taste of the Japanese people was responsible. When regular Army subsistence was cut to a minimum and typical Japanese food was substituted the waste largely disappeared. (See Mess Management report.)

Following close on the heels of the attack by The Denver Post, the next most serious incident in the history of the Center took place at the Motor Pool.

In the latter part of April, the evacuee employees of the section staged a walkout as an aftermath of a fist fight between a Caucasian employee and an evacuee agricultural supervisor. The walkout virtually crippled all the functions and activities requiring motor facilities.

The fight between the Caucasian and the evacuee grew out of the Motor Pool's failure to supply tractors with sufficient service during the height of the intensive agricultural program. Strained feelings were existent for some time previous to the exchange of blows between the two participants. After a series of conferences, the matter was settled when the two were reconciled.

This incident acted as a spark which set off a still greater issue involving the Motor Pool employees, who used the fracas to present a number of grievances about working conditions. Another investigation followed during which ten members representing the Motor Pool and the Administration and three independent members weighed the charges of the workers. The three independent members all were from Washington, D. C.

The result of the investigation was a reorganization of the Motor Pool. With better working conditions provided, the Motor Pool soon became one of the most efficient units of the Project.

The only other disturbance of note was a near-walkout at the hospital where a number of workers left their jobs, necessitating the calling for volunteers from among school teachers and others who had some knowledge of hospital operations.

The incident may have proved serious had the community as a whole and the Community Council, in particular, supported the action.

During the early days of the hospital, some of the workers, namely those in the hospital mess, had established free and easy ways and had conditions to their own liking. Later, when a new head nurse, who had worked for 18 years in Japan, took control of certain functions of the hospital the situation changed, with the workers following a strict schedule.

Three of the ringleaders who opposed the administration of the head nurse called for a walk-out. Some of the employees did leave their posts, however, but not in sufficient numbers to cause serious difficulties.

Despite their dissatisfaction, the ringleaders never at any time communicated their grievances to the administration or to hospital officials.

Actually, the situation wore itself out, with some of those who had left returning to their jobs at the insistence of members of the council or Block Managers but only after personal interviews with project officials. The three ringleaders, with no opposition from the community or the council, were sent to Leupp Detention Center as trouble makers. (The record of the hospital occurrence was completely documented and is in the Washington files of the Community Management Section.)

That first winter saw the majority of serious problems solved and the program of the War Relocation Authority becoming effective.

The registration program in January and February, 1943, was one of the important mile posts in Heart Mountain's life. With the original announcement of the plan and the first, inadequate explanations of the reasons and purposes of registration, the Center population stopped in its tracks.

At first the greatest concern was found among the older residents. This was brought about to some degree by the feeling that their futures were in jeopardy since they could not, under law, become citizens of this nation and because they were not at all sure but what they might be returned to their native land after the war. At that time many race-baiters, including members of the California legislature and Congress were crying for the deportation of all persons of Japanese ancestry.

Those who had asked for repatriation had little compunction in making their statements of loyalty to the Emperor of Japan while those who desired to remain in this country were afraid that their "non violence" statement might reach the ears of the police in their native country for whom they held much fear.

There was less difficulty with the Issei after the bottleneck had been broken than there was with a certain element of the Nisei.

For a time the Nisei did register, some reluctantly, although many were anxious to sign up for the army and were prepared for immediate induction. The fire of resistance flared up from time to time and unannounced meetings were held in many marshalls. The chief objection of the Nisei was that they were being pushed into something in which they had no voice, consequently their civil rights were being ignored. Such was the state of the evacuee mind at the time that had the issue been registration or any other matter the same reaction would have resulted. Registration was completed with nothing more serious than verbal threats.

As the offspring of registration, the segregation program was carried out without any major difficulties. As in most propositions where the lives of the evacuees would be distrubed, there was again some reluctance. But, after the program got underway those who were scheduled to be sent to Tule Lake accepted their fate, some gladly, some philosophically. Heart Mountain sent 900 of its residents to the Tule Lake Center.

Inauguration of Selective Service for Nisei in January, 1944, proved to be the last major hurdle for the administration to surmount. The greatest part of the opposition to the draft came in the beginning from Issei who did not want their sons in the armed service. This was soon taken out of their hands by a group known as the Fair Play Committee, the founders of which were well known during the registration resistance. Secret meetings were held at first to widen the interest of the group in demanding "equal rights" and "clarification of citizenship status." Mimeographed sheets were widely circulated and the group became bolder.

The administration at first did little to oppose the committee since the privilege of free speech was fully recognized at all times. It was not until the group began a "shakedown" racket of collecting funds for their support and pressuring Issei to exert more influence upon their sons that action was taken.

For considerable time the committee did exert wide influence in the Center, causing many young men who otherwise would have entered the armed service willingly to demand their "rights" before they would be inducted. Although support from the U. S. District Attorney in Cheyenne was slow in coming, the situation changed when investigators from that office began picking up draft evaders. It was not until after the trial of the first group, (62 defendants), that the indictment against the leaders of the Fair Play Committee was served. The U. S. District Attorney won a clear-cut decision over the defense attorney, A. L. Wirin, of the American Civil Liberties Union and the seven defendants were sentenced to the penitentiary. A total of 55 from Heart Mountain were convicted of violating the Selective Service Act and were sent to the penitentiary.

There were also minor matters of concern that continually plagued the administration but not a single one remained of prime importance and usually was taken care of simply by carrying out established procedure.

There was, naturally, resistance against relocation for a considerable length of time but despite the desire of many to remain in the Center the program continued. Following the all-Center conference in Salt Lake City, at which delegates from Heart Mountain played an important part, an attempt was made to hold the majority of the residents in Centers, but the firm stand taken by the National Director and the official project opposition to the council backing of the conference, made the effort ineffectual.

Despite the conjecture of the conference that the longer the evacuees remained in the Centers the better chance they would have of collecting idemnity from the government, several of the council's chief resisters were among the early departees.

As the relocation movement got under way, more and more of the residents found that they had been caught by the inevitable and made their plans without much complaint. When the Center population reached the point where the majority of the most reluctant's friends and relatives were "outside" they, too, wanted to leave the sanctuary of Heart Mountain.

Community Development

Despite the instances just recited, Heart Mountain's affairs ran smoothly and with a minimum of resistance.

After having passed the first winter with its significant developments and made necessary adjustments in their lives, the residents found the administration cooperative and understanding. The welfare and morale of the community was always a prime consideration and as evacuees began to build pride in their personal surroundings their interests took root in the Center itself.

With the opening of the high school and auditorium the younger element of Heart Mountain displayed an attitude not dissimilar to that of students in normal communities.

Dances, parties, carnivals, bond drives, war stamp sales and events which mean so much to students became a regular part of their routine. Football and basketball games with teams from adjoining communities lifted their spirits and built morale.

The old folk were not neglected and showed an interest in studying English and developing talents for sewing, flower arrangement and other activities that kept them happy and contented.

Heart Mountain churches, which were in operation from the first Sunday there were evacuees in the Center until the last had left, played an important part in sustaining the morale of the people. At Christmas time visitors expressed amazement that any group of people, confined by barbed wire, could show such happiness and contentment of spirit.

The inner satisfaction of the evacuees expressed itself largely in their flower and victory gardens which dotted the Center, of the pride they took in their own home-made clothing, in their homes and in the service flags hanging in their windows.

Discussion groups, open forums, lectures and concerts contributed to their intellectual interests and almost-weekly exhibits of paintings, carvings, embroidery and handicraft illustrated the bend of the community to cultural things.

The early provincialism of the residents which kept persons evacuated from a certain community as neighbors in adjoining barracks, dissolved after a time and residents considered themselves as being from Heart Mountain.

When the Center reached the epitome of its life, residents considered Heart Mountain as the one and only Center. In arguments with visitors from other centers they bragged about the cool, pleasant weather, which at first they thought would be intolerable; about their high school building; about their weekly newspaper; about their Boy Scout Drum and Bugle Corps; their dances; their feminine pulchritude. They even boasted that the WRA and the administrative staff at Heart Mountain were superior to those at other centers.

Relations With The Evacuees

From the beginning of the Center the relations of the Caucasion personnel with the evacuse personnel was high. Never in the history of the Center, with the one exception of the Motor Pool fight which was the result of temper and not of personalities, was there ever any conflict between the two elements.

Members of the appointed personnel were welcome in homes and there was never a special dinner or banquet at which some member of the administration was not a guest of honor.

Caucasion teachers served in the Sunday Schools, with the Girl Scouts, Camp Fire Girls, and as advisers to other groups. Division and section heads were frequent speakers at meetings, both informal and formal.

Evacuees were frequent visitors in the homes of the appointed personnel and the majority of "old timers" on the Project grew to regard their charges as they would anyone else.

On a few occasions some of the appointed personnel leaned over backwards to sympathise with the evacuees but generally those persons were not with the organisation for long. They soon learned that the evacuees, themselves, did not want that kind of treatment and preferred, by and large, to be treated as individuals and not as persecuted persons.

Operations Of The Project

In their relations with the evacuees the appointed personnel generally received as much in service as they themselves extended. It was learned early in the beginning of the Project that the evacuees in many cases wanted to be sure the appointed supervisor knew his job before they would tackle theirs.

In some of the larger groups there was considerable "soldiering on the job" particularly where supervision was not close. There were also instances where a reliable and dependable evacuee would willingly and gladly take on responsibilities equal to their supervisor's.

Not every office received the full benefit of all of the evacuees' time and many of the appointed personnel worried over not being able to keep their staffs fully occupied. In offices, however, where good management and office practices were followed the evacuee personnel performed a creditable job.

Appointed Personnel

In conclusion a brief tribute should be paid to the appointed personnel for their part in the operations and successful conclusion of the program at the Project level. Even in times of peace, when manpower is easily available, it would have been difficult to have retained a staff with as much interest in their jobs, devotion to the program and its principles and conscientious execution of their duties.

Working and living on the Project during the early part of the program was not an easy thing, considering that most of the personnel had come from cities with their steam-heated apartments and easy conveniences.

During the major part of the first winter, employees who lived at the Center were issued the same type of cot, pad and blankets that evacuees received. Food in their messhall was issued from the commisary on the same basis as it was issued to the evacuee messhalls. There was no recreation other than that which could be devised through their own efforts and ingenuity. They seemed to thrive in most cases, with only a few succumbing to a desire to "get back to civilization."

The hardy life at the Center seemed to build a bond between the evacuees and the appointed personnel, which contributed to the general welfare of the Project.

There were no important instances of dissatisfaction over the poor living conditions, which were soon corrected by the procurement of comfortable furniture and beds and the decorating of the living rooms of each dormitory.

Later, comfortable quarters were provided for almost all of the personnel and considerable community spirit developed through women's bridge clubs, softball teams, basketball teame and an occasional dance or social.

As is occasioned by the confinement of a number of people in the same remote place over a long period of time, wrangling and ill feelings will frequently develop. Naturally, there was some bickering over use of laundry rooms and similar minor matters but the Heart Mountain Caucasian community probably felt a closer bond of friendship than is found in most communities.

The turnover of personnel at Heart Mountain, as in other Centers, was serious. Many of the original staff, however, who entered on duty when the Center opened remained on their jobs despite offers from other agencies and inviting opportunities "outside". This same was true of many of the teachers who completed their three full years of student activities with a feeling that theirs was an obligation to be fully discharged.

As project director, it is with a deep feeling of gratitude that Heart Mountain is closed as a war-time community. During the lifetime of this Center there have been many lessons learned by both evacuees and Caucasians. Human values have become more important and there is little doubt but what those of the appointed personnel will have learned more about their own Democracy and hold it at a higher value. From present indications there is assurance, too, that America's people of Japanese ancestry have also learned to hold more closely to them the possibilities and potentialities that are inherently theirs.

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Title: [Heart Mountain Relocation Center Relocation, Project Director's Final Report]
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